Understanding earnings quality: A review of the proxies, their determinants and their consequences
In order to provide a commentary on the state of the literature, we begin by presenting a framework for thinking about earnings quality. For expositional convenience, we define reported earnings as follows:
Reported Earnings = f (X)
X is thelsquo;lsquo;yenterprisersquo;s financial performance during are porting period,rsquo;rsquo; which SFAC No.1 state s is what earnings,a primary focus of financial reporting,should represent.The function f represents the accounting system that converts the unobservable X into observable earnings. One implication of this definitionis that earnings,and the decision usefulness of earnings, is a function of performance itself,and not just the measurement of X, which is an important point that we will return to later.
We borrow the termlsquo;lsquo;financial performancersquo;rsquo; directly from SFAC No.1 to define X, but we recognize that the meaning of lsquo;lsquo;performancersquo;rsquo; is ambiguous. For a one-period model of a firm, lsquo;lsquo;performancersquo;rsquo; is observable and consists of the cash flows generated during the period plus the change in the liquidation value of net assets.When a firm exists over multiple reporting periods,performance represents three components :
(i)cash flows generated during the current period;
(ii)the present value of cash flows that will be generated in future periods that are a result of actions taken in the current period; and (iii)the present value of the change in the liquidation value of net assets that are a result of actions taken in the current period. Penman and Sougiannis(1998) describe a primitive construct like X, specifically in the context of equity valuation, as lsquo;lsquo;y attributes with in the firm,which are said to capture value-creating activitiesrsquo;rsquo; (p.348).
To shed additional light on the nature of what we mean by performance, we turn to a specific example in Graham and Doddrsquo;s advice to analysts about the use of financial information:
Most important of all, the analyst must recognize that the value of a particular kind of data varies greatly with the type of enterprise which is being studied. The five-year record of gross or net earnings of a railroad or a large chain- store enterprise may afford, if not a conclusive, at least a reasonably sound basis for measuring the safety of the senior issues and the attractiveness of the common shares. But the same statistics supplied by one of the smaller oil-producing companies may well prove more deceptive than useful, since they are chiefly the resultant of two factors, viz., price received and production, both of which are likely to be radically different in the future than in the past. (p. 33–34)
In this example, price received and production are the types of factors that will determine the firmrsquo;s unobservable financial performance (X). Two features of our definition of reported earnings are noteworthy.First,the unobservable component X is defined without reference to a particular stake holder(e.g.,equity holderordebt holder).However,the relevance of a specific element of a firmrsquo;s performance, such as production or pricing,can vary across stake holders and decision models.For example, an important decision model in put for a long-term debt holder may be liquidation values of assetsin the period when principal payments are due,while the relevant decision model input for a short-term debt holder is near-term expected cash flows,and performance(X) can differentially affect these two outcomes.A compensation committee may care only about the elements of performance that are under managementrsquo;s control.Defining X without respect to a decision model is intentional and is consistent with a long-standing debate in the accounting literature on what earnings should represent.Should earnings measure changes in fair value(current or exitprices)of an enterprise,or should earnings measure lsquo;lsquo;sustainablersquo;rsquo; cash flows (e.g., Paton and Littleton, 1940; Ohlson, 2000), such that it can be annuitized to reflect value? The debate over the quality of earnings, as opposed to the quality of the balance sheet, is another important question, and it underscores a significant message of the review: the decision usefulness of accounting information is jointly determined by the decision model and by the accounting information that is used as an input to the model.
The second noteworthy feature of our definition of reported earnings is that reported earnings does not equal X; it is a function of X.We distinguish three explanations for why an accounting measurement system(f) would not perfectly measure performance:
- Multiple decisionmodels:An accounting system that produces a single reported earnings number can not produce a representation of X that is equally relevant in all decision models.In U.S.GAAP:lsquo;lsquo;The objectives are directed toward the common interests of many users in the ability of an enterprise to generate favorable cash flows but are phrasedusing investment and credit decisions as a reference to give them a focusrsquo;rsquo;(SFACNo.1).Ultimately,the standard setters make trade-offs insetting standards across anticipated usersrsquo; needs,and in the end no individual decision-maker gets a representation of firm performance that is perfectly relevant for his or her decision.
-
Variation in X: Firms choose among a limited set of pre-determined measurement principles (e.g.,accounting standards) to measure X. No single standard will perfectly measure X for any given firm.8 Consider, for example,cost of goods sold(COGS),which represents the reportable measure of a firmrsquo;s unobservable inventory production performance during the period.GAAP defines the costs to be included in COGS and the timing of the recognition of the costs. However,the resultinglsquo;lsquo;standardizedrsquo;rsquo;measure of COGS will not be an equally good measure of decision- relevant performance acrossall Xs (e.g.,retail chains versus oil producing compa
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外文文献翻译
题目名称:关于盈利质量的理解:一片关于他们代理和决定因素以及后果
翻译内容:为了能够提供一个关于这篇文章的状态的评论方法,我们通过呈现一个关于盈利质量的思考框架来进行,为了阐述的方便,我们定义报告的收益如下:
收益=F(x)
X是“某企业在一段财务报告期间的经济表现”这一定义在《财务会计公报》中被提及什么是收益、对于财务报告的基本关注,得到陈述。f的功能是将不可见的x变为可见的收益,这种定义下的一个含义是关于收入和收入的决策有用性,是一个函数的性能本身,而不仅仅是测量X,这一点很重要,我们将稍后返回
我们从《财务会计公报》的第一定义来定义财务表现这一术语,但是我们意识到表现这一个词其实是模糊的。以一段时间的公司为模型,表现是可见的,它是由一段时间产生的现金流量和净资产清算价值的变化而组成的。当一个公司存在多个报告期间的时候,财务表现就是以下三种组成部分:(1)现阶段聚集的现金流(2)当前现金流量的现值在未来一段时间产生的价值取决于当下的采取的决定(3)现在净资产清算价值的变化当前一系列行动的结果。
Penman最初使用了X,尤其是在股票的估值中。“这些属性在公司内部,被称为能够创造价值的活动”
为了去掉财务表现这一本质上的额外光环,我们按照Grahamand Dodd分析师的意见去使用财务信息:
首先最重要的是:这种研究必须承认所研究的数据会随着被研究企业大幅度变化:五年记录的总数或者是大型铁路的净资产或者是一间大型连锁店能承担的起的。如果不是决定性的,至少有一个合理的基础来测量这些高级问题的安全性和普通股的吸引力。但同样的统计数据由一个小产油公司很可能证明比有用的欺骗性,因为它们主要的合成两个因素,即,价格收到和生产,这两个可能是完全不同的未来比过去。在这个例子中,收到的价格和生产因素是两种类型因素将决定公司的不可见的财务业绩(X)。两个报告收益的定义值得注意的特性。首先,定义的不可见的组件X是没有参考特定股份持有者(如。、股票持有人或债权人不再)。然而,特定的相关公司的表现,如生产或定价,在利益相关者和决策模型可能会有所不同。例如,在把一个重要的决策模型长期债券持有人可能清算的资产价值的时期当本金到期,而相关决策模型把短期债务持有者短期预期的现金流,和性能(X)不同会影响这两个结果。然而,特定元素的相关公司的表现,如生产或定价,在利益相关者和决策模型可能会有所不同。例如,在把一个重要的决策模型长期债券持有人可能清算的资产价值的时期当本金到期,而相关决策模型把短期债务持有人是近期的预期现金流和性能(X)不同会影响这两个结果。薪酬委员会只是关心元素在管理控制下的性能,定义决定模型下的x是有目的性的并且符合一个长期存在的争论在会计文献中收益是什么应该代表。收入应该是公允价值计量还是按照可持续的现金流量计量?收益质量的争论,而不是资产负债表的质量,是另一个重要的问题,它凸显了审查的一个重要消息:决策会计信息的有用性是共同决定的决策模型和会计信息作为模型的输入。第二个报告收益的定义值得注意的特点是公布财报收益不等于X,这是一个x的函数我们区分三个原因可以解释为什么会计测量系统(f)不会完美测量性能:
(1)多决策模型:收入的数量不能创造一个同样具有代表性相关的x在所有的决策模型中。在美国公认会计准则:“盈利质量的目标是指向许多用户的共同利益,企业产生良好的现金流的能力,但投资和信贷决策作为参考给他们一个焦点。最终,标准制定者权衡在预期的用户的需要,制定标准,最后没有个人决策者获得代表公司绩效与他或她的决定是完全相关的。
(2)x的变化:公司选择一组有限的预先确定的测量原则(例如,会计标准)来测量X没有单一的标准将完全测量X的任何公司。考虑,例如,销售商品成本,代表公司的可报告的测量难以察觉的库存生产期间的表现。公认会计准则定义了成本被包括销售商品的成本和识别这些成本的时间成本。然而,由此产生的“标准化”不会同样的销售商品成本决定有关所有X(如性能。,零售连锁店和石油生产公司,使用多德例子),它将不会被任何X的一个完美的表示。
(3)实现:一个会计制度,措施难以察觉的构造(X)本身就涉及了估计和判断,因此有可能无意的错误和故意的偏见(即。,收益管理)。
我们将盈利作为f(x)为我们来讨论关于这篇盈利质量的文章提供了两种视角(详见第三页)。我们第一个视角就是我们已经在实现这件事情上做出了很大的努力我们的第 观察是我们在研究取得了相当大的进展影响测量的实现问题上面的X(# 3)相对于其他两种解释研究f在公布业绩的影响,尤其是相对于研究X本身公布业绩的影响大多数的研究我们确定评审。大量的发表论文,是关于行列式砂的后果异常收益,从权责发生制模型,认为异常收益,是否代表错误或偏见,侵蚀的决定的实用性。第二组经常研究代理收益质量的外部指标如AAERs和重述,也提供证据关于实现。
那些取得了巨大进步的观察并不意味着以后的工作的是不重要的。例如,研究异常收益可以进展更好的区分测量X的影响收益本身性能的影响。常用的模型被用来测量异常收益试图控制的收益与公司业绩相关,调用它们正常,无法控制,或天生的收益(见表2) 但使用的变量模型正常收益是他们自己衡量业绩相关权责发生制基础收益(如。增长的报道,销售收入)。因此,权责发生制模型可能区分那些代表了自由裁量权正常收益的组件。甚至那些测量总收益是否优于现金流量的研究并没有从测量x本身分离测量系统关于决策有效性的影响,因为现金流量并不代表着我们通常定义的财务表现的本身。研究人员将需要超越那些为了获得洞察力的自然增长模型源于收益模型的检验而不是会计系统的影响效力。虽然实现问题被强烈反应在这篇文章中,但是基本的财务绩效收益质量是有限的。虽然基本的财务性能反映在不同的截面上,但是财务表现有自己的基本属性。因此, 报告的质量或决策有用性收入是一个函数的质量或性能本身的决策有用性的功能。作为会计人员,我们已经关注到了过程的测量,尤其是在完成情况这件事情上。更多关于公布的财务报表的影响的研究对于我们理解盈利质量很有帮助。研究在这种类型的例子,是比德尔(1991)和艾哈迈德(1994),这两个研究伦理委员会的关键人物。
第二个关于这篇文章的状态是观察收益的属性,通常用作代表对于盈利质量这一方法不替代测量的一个公司的收益(或国家)的盈利。不同的属性,如持久性和平滑性都是相同的财务指标下的不同属性。 他们都被公司的基本财务状况表现和会计系统测量表现能力影响,但是不同的属性不能被这两个相同因素的影响。收益之间的相关性说明了这一点。表2表明收益属性之间的相关性是积极的也是数据上明显的但经济上并不显著。及时识别持久性和损失之间的关系小于2%甚至平滑度是负相关的。
低甚至负相关应该不足为奇,如前所述,虽然代理代表的属性同样公布业绩数字,但是代理质量测量不同属性的收益。呈现相关性是为了强调实证测试应该利用变化的措施作出预测收益的具体特性,这些特性使其决策有用。可测试的假设决定因素和后果,决策有用性源于决策模型意味着特定的收益提高的特点的决定的结果。大多数理论都不能预测所有收益属性关系,或者至少不会预测同样强大的关系。预测的特定财产的收益影响因素变量或预测一个特定的属性的结果将允许更好的识别的测试基础理论。那些不将收益属性作为替代品的研究通常不能拒绝行列式与公司业绩的影响或后果(X)财产收益的假设而不是测量的过程。那些他们的结果是强劲的替代措施收益质量的研究报告说, ,尽管他们通常不解决那些他们本应该做出的理论预测,。
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