Career Aspirations of Women in the 20th Century
Desirae M. Domenico
Kennesaw Mountain High School
Karen H. Jones
The University of Georgia
ABSTRACT
Women have increasingly become more involved in the workforce following World War II. Paid employment of women has shifted from primarily traditional female-oriented jobs to more non-traditional, and previously male-oriented careers. Womens participation in the workforce has lead to the study of career aspirations of women. Career aspirations are influenced by factors such as gender, socioeconomic status, race, parents occupation and education level, and parental expectations. This review of literature presents an overview of womens participation in the workforce and the progress of womens career development and career aspirations in the latter half of the 20th century.
INTRODUCTION
At various times throughout history, working women were viewed as immoral and unfeminine objects of pity. Some critics accused working women of being negligent mothers. Frequently, women employees were not taken seriously by their bosses, colleagues, or society (Nieva amp; Gutek, 1981). Having a career posed challenges for women due to their family responsibilities (Valdez amp; Gutek, 1987). Women were expected to perform duties as wife and mother, in addition to fulfilling their professional responsibilities. Some women experienced feelings of guilt or selfishness if they put their career interests first (Heins, Hendricks, amp; Martindale, 1982). Because womens work and family demands were simultaneous, these demands had a significant impact on womens careers (Valdez, amp; Gutek). As stated by Heins et al., 'Achieving professional status may be more difficult for women than for men' (p. 455).
Despite their increasing numbers, women have tended to enter the workforce in lower-status, lower-paying jobs, and remain clustered in a limited number of conventional careers (Tinklin, Croxford, Ducklin, amp; Frame, 2005). Low-paying traditionally female careers, including administrative support, sales, service, nursing, teaching, social work, and clerical jobs, reflected societys persistent attitudes regarding stereotypical occupational roles for males and females (Rainey amp; Borders, 1997; Sellers, Satcher, amp; Comas, 1999; Stephenson amp; Burge, 1997; Watson, Quatman, amp; Elder, 2002). Because womens career choices were restricted, their earnings lagged behind their male counterparts with comparable education and experience (Farmer, 1985; Stephenson amp; Burge). Income earnings have been found to increase with educational level and years employed (Day amp; Newburger, 2002). However, women earned roughly two-thirds the income of their male counterparts. This discrepancy in income was partially attributed to the disparity between traditionally male and traditionally female occupations. For example, women are less likely to be employed in science or engineering jobs, as these are considered traditionally male occupations. However, females who are employed in these jobs earn roughly 20% less their male counterparts (Graham amp; Smith, 2005). Factors narrowing women into traditional role occupations included social and familial influences, a lack of awareness regarding nontraditional options, an unwelcoming environment in many male-dominated fields, discrimination within career fields, high turnover rates for women, and less seniority in given occupations. These factors also contributed to earning gaps between men and women (Stephenson amp; Burge).
Womens Participation in the Workforce
The view of a womans role in the workforce has changed significantly throughout time. Historically, society believed a womans place was in her home, caring for her husband and children, as opposed to the workplace. Valued feminine traits such as a meek nature and submissiveness were feared to be lost if women entered the workforce (Astin, 1984; Nieva amp; Gutek, 1981). The earliest cases of women working outside the home date back before the Industrial Revolution. Women commonly assisted their husbands with maintaining the family or acted as a business partner, although they often received no pay. If they were paid for their work, women earned less than their male counterparts (Nieva amp; Gutek).
Eventually, women began extending their work outside the home in the form of domestic and other jobs such as clerical workers. The integration of women into the workforce was a slow process and was often v
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20世纪女性的职业理想
摘要
二战后，女性逐渐的卷入劳动力市场。有偿就业的女性已经从主要是以女性为主导的传统工作更多的转向非传统,和以往以男性为主导的职业。女性加入劳动力市场导致了对女性职业理想的研究。影响职业理想的因素有性别、社会经济地位、种族、父母的职业和教育水平、和父母的期望。综述文献主要概述20世纪下半叶的女性参与劳动力市场和女性的职业发展以及女性的职业理想。
介绍
在历史上的各个不同时期,职业女性被认为是不道德的和不温柔的怜悯的对象。一些批评人士指责职业女性是过失的母亲。通常,女性员工不被他们的老板、同事或社会看重和认真对待(Nieva amp; Gutek,1981)。女性的职业生涯有一个挑战是由于其家庭责任(Valdez amp; Gutek,1987)。除了履行专业职责，女人还要执行作为妻子和母亲职责。一些女性如果把自己的职业利益放在首位，她们会感到罪恶感或自私,(Heins, Hendricks, amp; Martindale,1982)。因为女性的工作和家庭需求同时，这些要求对妇女的职业生涯产生重大影响(Valdez, amp; Gutek)。如上Heins所述等等，“实现职业地位对女性而言可能比男性更难”。
尽管她们人数越来越多,但女性往往进入更多的是不稳定、低薪水的工作,集中在数量有限的传统职业(Tinklin, Croxford, Ducklin, amp; Frame,2005)。低薪传统的女性职业，包括行政支持、销售、服务、护理、教学、社会工作、和文书工作。关于男性和女性的职业角色反映出社会的持久的态度(Rainey amp; Borders, 1997; Sellers, Satcher, amp; Comas, 1999; Stephenson amp; Burge, 1997; Watson, Quatman, amp; Elder, 2002）。因为女性的职业选择受到限制,相较于教育和经验，他们的收入落后于男性(Farmer, 1985; Stephenson amp; Burge)。已经发现收入的增加与提高教育水平和雇佣年限成正比(Day amp; Newburger, 2002)。然而，妇女大约只获得了男性收入额三分之二。这种收入差异部分归因于传统的男性和传统女性的职业之间的差异。例如,女性不太可能从事科学或工程工作,因为这些传统上被认为是男性的职业。然而，女性从事这些工作收入大约少于男性的20%(Graham amp; Smith, 2005)。缩小女性进入传统角色的职业因素包括社会和家庭的影响、缺乏有关非传统选择的意识、在许多男性主导的领域的一个不受欢迎的环境、在职业领域的歧视、对于女性来说的高流动率和在特定的职业的更少的资历。这些因素也导致了男女之间的收入差距(Stephenson amp; Burge)。
女性参与劳动力市场
女人的观点贯穿在劳动力中扮演的角色已经发生了巨大变化。从历史上看,社会相信一个女人的地方是在家里,照顾她的丈夫和孩子,而不是工作。重视女性如温柔的性质和柔顺特征，如果女性进入劳动力市场，则担心丢失这些性质特征(Astin, 1984; Nieva amp; Gutek, 1981)。女性在外工作的情况下最早可以追溯到工业革命前。女性通常维护家人或作为一个商业伙伴协助丈夫,尽管她们经常没有得到收入。如果他们支付她们的工作,女性收入也是低于男性的工作收入(Nieva amp; Gutek)。
最终，女性以家为主的形式开始扩展她们在外工作和其他作为文职人员等工作。大规模的女性劳动力是一个缓慢的过程，通常被认为不利于社会(Nieva amp; Gutek, 1981)。虽然有些妇女开始体验职场生活，他们经常被视为临时雇员。他们的工作将排在婚姻和生育的第二位(Gutek amp; Larwood, 1987; Tinklin et al., 2005)。19世纪中期，更多的女性参与教学、护理和行政工作。这些工作被视为女性代表，社会认为这些工作适合单身女性 (Nieva amp; Gutek)。
在1890年,只有不到3%的已婚女性在外面工作。到1900年,25%的女性都是劳动力的参与者。在未来十年，到1910年这个比例逐渐上升，近750万名妇女将在外面工作。直到第二次世界大战的开始，这些数字仍保持相当稳定(Nieva amp; Gutek, 1981)。第二次世界大战爆发引发了女性劳动参与的数量急剧增加。除了通常是以女性为主导的工作，妇女还被聘请为技术工作和工会工作，这些职位是她们以前参与不了的(Nieva amp; Gutek)。
第二次世界大战之后,越来越多的女性不管她们的婚姻或父母的态度，继续进入劳动力市场(Rainey amp; Borders, 1997; Watson et al., 2002)。从1950年到1980年，女性参与劳动力市场的比例从30%增加到超过了50%(Astin, 1984; Farmer, 1985; Stephenson amp; Burge, 1997)。到1970年代末，近50%的已婚妇女和40%的16岁以上的女性参加工作(Nieva amp; Gutek, 1981)。然而，她们仍然认为工作是继于家庭责任(Tinklin et al., 2005)。在1990年大约有5700万16岁以上成年女性劳动力获得劳动支付(Rainey amp; Borders; Watson et al.)。在1990年代早期尽管女性的劳动力参与率出现短暂的停滞，但到1994年，其参与率再次上升(Hayghe, 1997)。
到1990年代中期,美国大约46%的劳动力是女性(Stephenson amp; Burge, 1997)。在1990年代中期，只有7%的美国家庭是家庭主妇呆在家里和靠丈夫养家糊口，如此众多工作的妇女人数挑战了这样的传统的刻板印象（Jalilvand, 2000; Stephenson amp; Burge; Tinklin et al., 2005）。到2005年，劳动力市场估计估计将会有有48%或大约7200万的妇女组成(Rainey amp; Borders, 1997; Stephenson amp; Burge; Tinklin et al.; Watson et al., 2002)。事实上，Fullerton, Jr.(1999)通过预计，2015年女性劳动力的参与率会持续上升。Nieva amp; Gutek（1981）认为，女性的就业率增加更有利于职业女性的态度、更长的寿命、改变婚姻模式、改善和接受避孕方法。今天,不再有太多的质疑女性加入劳动大军。此外，职业女性已不再认为是偏离常态、而是正常的(Rainey amp; Borders)。
女性劳动力参与的障碍
障碍是指阻止事件向前移动的任何障碍或使得职业发展困难的各种条件 （Brown amp; Barbosa, 2001）。Swanson和Woitke(
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