服装业的发展:技术与时尚外文翻译资料

 2022-11-27 02:11


The Development of the Clothing Industry: Technology and Fashion

The ready-made clothing industry is, perhaps, the single most important industry in the economic history of the western world which has not yet yielded to a comprehensive academic investigation of its development. In Britain, for example, the clothing trades were for many decades during the Industrial Revolution one of the largest sources of employment; in 1851 the dress trades were the second most important source of non- agricultural employment for women, after domestic service.2 This gap in our knowledge seems all the greater when the relationship between the clothing and the textiles industries is remembered. That clothes manufacturers were the principal purchasers of finished textiles has rarely led textiles industry researchers to examine the methods of transforming the cottons, woollens and worsteds into finished consumer goods. The reasons for this gap in the history of industrialization in Britain - and, indeed, in the United States - are perhaps related to the typically small size of firm and the relative ease of both entry and exit into the industry. This has left the legacy of a poorly recorded industrial development with few company archives to supplement the paltry official statistics. Moreover the enormous variety of products included in the industry makes it a difficult industry for historians to master. Yet, despite the problems, the industry merits investigation - as much for a greater understanding of the social impact of the developments in clothes manufacturing and purchasing as the economic development. Moreover, in recent years clothing manufacturers have been the focus of renewed attention as proponents of the flexible specialization, or historical alternatives, thesis have sought to understand where the balance between craft-skills and mass-production technology lies in the modern clothing industry, and, indeed, how it may have developed in the past.3

It is worth reviewing what has been written about the clothing industrys development in Britain. The conventional historiography can be divided into four groups. The first and the largest group is that which has focused on the clothing industry as one of the sources of thersquo; evil of sweatingrsquo;.There were at least three periods before the First World War when respectable society was outraged at the exploitative behavior of the sweaters. In the 1840S and 1850S the Christian Socialists wrote pamphlets and booklets to raise awareness of the plight of female dressmakers and seamstresses. In the mid-1880s to the early 1890S the outcry surrounding the discovery of poverty in Londons East End and the concerns for the submerged tenth led to similar calls to investigate the evils of sweating; this time leading to a Parliamentary Select Committee as well as a number of unofficial investigations. Finally, in the troubled years immediately preceding the 1914 war, there were renewed concerns at the low level of payments for most workers in the clothing industry, concerns which eventually led to the first minimum wage legislation in Britain in 1912.4 With such a wealth of primary sources historians have been able to produce a number of works concerned with the social consequences of sweating and which have used the clothing industry as a case study. 5

The second category of research has come from the perspective of the history of the Jewish immigrants and their involvement in the clothing industry. Here authors are also primarily concerned with the social impact of clothing industry development, in particular with how this either constrained or fostered immigrant assimilation and integration. 6 Third, there are those detailed case studies of individual businesses or regions;7 and finally, a handful of studies concerned with economic development in general which touch on the clothing industry, albeit briefly.8

The value of the research in the first two groups is of limited importance in the analysis of the long-term development of the clothing industry. The detailed case studies are of importance but second to the more general picture of the industry presented by the historians in the latter group. Here, however, the story of the development of the clothing industry is presented as little more than the result of the invention of the sewing machine. It was the astonishing velocity of the sewing machine, according to the Economist in I85I, which was to transform the working life of the tailors and seamstresses all over the world.9 This was because the functions of clothing workers had not been even touched by machinery since the dawn of civilization.10 So, the line of argument went, the tail or sand seamstresses of I50 years ago would have been more familiar with the construction of the first garments in the Garden of Eden than with the methods of assembly in the factories and workshops of ready-made clothing industry in Leeds and London by the tum of the century.II This is the first obvious myth surrounding the development of the ready-made clothing industry. Its origins lie much further back than the invention of the sewing machine, and the innovation which prompted its development was not new machinery, but the development of standard sizes. Indeed, the assumption of a relationship between technological change and industrial development has bed evilled analysis of the garment industry, one of the few manufacturing sectors which appears to have little structural responsiveness to technological changes.

It is now apparent that the ready-made clothing industry developed first in the United Ilt;ingdom, especially in southern England. Beverly Lemire has been able to trace its origins as far back as the end of the seventeenth century, when the contracting out of the manufacturing of military uniforms first began. This practice grew in the eighteenth century and was particularly prominent during the Napoleonic War

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服装业的发展:技术与时尚

成衣制造业可能是西方世界经济史上最重要的一个行业,它尚未屈服于对其发展的全面学术调查。例如,在英国,工业革命期间的服装贸易是几十年来最大的就业来源之一;在1851年,在家政服务之后,服装行业是妇女非农业就业的第二大最重要的来源.2当我们知道服装和纺织业之间的关系时,我们的知识差距似乎更大。那些服装制造商是成品纺织品的主要购买者,很少引导纺织业研究人员研究将棉花,羊毛和精纺织品转化为成品消费品的方法。英国工业化历史上这种差距的原因 - 实际上,在美国 - 也许与公司的规模通常较小以及进入和退出该行业相对容易相关。这留下了工业发展记录不佳的遗留问题,公司档案很少,以补充微不足道的官方统计数据。此外,该行业所包含的各种产品使其成为历史学家难以掌握的行业。然而,尽管存在这些问题,该行业也值得调查 - 尽可能多地了解作为经济发展的服装制造和采购发展的社会影响。此外,近年来,作为灵活专业化的支持者或历史替代品,服装制造商一直是重新关注的焦点,论文试图了解工艺技能和大规模生产技术之间的平衡在现代服装业中的位置,以及事实上,过去它可能已经发展了值得回顾一下有关英国服装行业发展的文章。传统的史学可以分为四组。第一个也是最大的一个集团是把服装行业作为“出汗邪恶”的来源之一。第一次世界大战之前至少有三个时期,当可敬的社会对该集团的剥削行为感到愤怒时毛衣。在1840年代和1850年代,基督教社会主义者写下小册子和小册子,以提高对女性裁缝和裁缝师困境的认识。在19世纪80年代中期至1890年代初期,围绕伦敦东区贫穷发现的强烈抗议以及对“淹没的十分之一”的担忧引发了类似的调查,以调查出汗的罪恶;这一次导致议会特别委员会以及一些非官方的调查。最后,在紧接着1914年战争之前的困难时期,对服装业大多数工人的低水平支付再次引起担忧,这些担忧最终导致了1912年英国的第一个最低工资立法.4由于如此丰富的小学来源历史学家已经能够产生许多关于“出汗”的社会后果的作品,并且已经使用服装行业作为案例研究。

第二类研究来自犹太移民的历史以及他们对服装行业的介入。这里的作者也主要关注服装行业发展的社会影响,特别是如何限制或促进移民同化和融合。第三,有关个别企业或地区的详细案例研究7;最后,一些关于经济发展的研究涉及到服装行业,虽然简要8。

前两类研究的价值在分析服装业长期发展中的重要性有限。详细的案例研究具有重要意义,但其次是后者中历史学家提出的更为一般的行业图景。然而,在这里,服装行业发展的故事仅仅是缝纫机发明的结果。据I85I“经济学人”报道,这是缝纫机惊人的速度,它将改变世界各地裁缝和裁缝的工作生活.9这是因为服装工人的功能并没有达到自从文明曙光以后,这些机器一直受到机器的影响“。因此,争论的焦点就在于,I50年前的尾部或砂缝裁缝更熟悉伊甸园第一件衣服的建造,而不是在世纪之交,在利兹和伦敦的成衣制造工厂和工厂进行装配。这是围绕成衣业发展的第一个明显的神话。它的起源比缝纫机的发明还要遥远,推动其发展的创新不是新机器,而是标准尺寸的发展。事实上,假设技术变化与工业发展之间的关系已成为服装业的鲜明分析,成衣业是少数几个制造业部门之一,对技术变革的结构反应似乎很小。

现在显而易见的是,成衣制造业在美国尤其是在英格兰南部首先发展起来。贝弗利莱米尔早在十七世纪末就已经能够追溯其起源,当时制服军服的工作首先开始。这种做法在18世纪得到了增长,在拿破仑战争时期尤为突出.12然而,在军事之外,对于现成服装的需求在20世纪80年代之前还相当有限。部分原因是这些早期成衣服装可能会满足需求有限的需求。这些早期成衣服装的大部分只能是非常宽松的装饰,其中切割几乎没有形状。例如,在机械化之前,工作服很快就变成了现成的服装。雷丁大学乡村历史中心(世界上最大的这种收藏)举行的收集服饰展示了农业劳动力的主食服装如何屈服于定制服装的标准形状和针法机械化之前。然而,克里斯蒂娜福勒展示了消费者对现成品的需求是如何开始变得更加复杂的,并详细分析了支出模式

在1820年以前每天工作的人口在汉普郡。她的证据表明,服装支出在家庭收入中所占的比例比迄今为止所承认的要高。很显然,家庭在这个时候花费在他们收入的10%到20%之间的服装并不少见。其中大部分花费在现成物品上。通常它们都是功能性的,比如工作服,但是,正如福勒所说的,像马甲和马裤这样的服装至少在功能上与其时装内容一样多。消费者需求可能是工业革命中最重要的元素之一,在南部农村地区以消费者需求为重点的时尚消费者的存在更加重要。

正如斯坦利查普曼所表明的那样,时装也是19世纪早期对现成袜子需求增长的一个因素。网袜是在莱斯特和诺丁汉快速发展的袜子中心制作的,并在整个土地上销售。再次,成衣制造业这个分支的发展早于任何重大的机械化。这个行业是由这些商人和批发商组织的,以控制推销过程,并且在查普曼分析最大的批发商I&R Morley的记录时,很明显,袜子制造业最终集中到大型工厂19世纪下半叶由大公司所拥有的产品更多地受到需求特征的驱动,如Morleys坚持质量控制,而不是技术规模经济的逻辑。

1840年以后,其他成衣制造业的发展也是如此。这里最重要的发展是一些创新型企业家认识到,对廉价新服装的需求可能相当大。这些企业家最初是作为二手服装的卖家而开始的。1840年已经开始投资于现在销售的主要消费者中心的更大的零售店,而不是二手的,而是预先装配好的或者现成的新衣服。最成功的是Elias Moses和他的儿子Isaac Moses Marsden,他是Aldgate的摩西和儿子创建了世界上第一家服装商场。 E.Moses,Hyams,Nicholls和其他公司,如亨利摩西,摩西儿子和戴维斯,亚伯拉罕里昂摩西(他们中的许多人与埃利亚斯摩西,彼此,甚至是海姆斯家族有关)都大量投入营销在人口众多的中心成衣.在1850年代早期,E.Moses&Son每年花费巨额广告费10,000英镑,Nicholls花​​费了5000英镑。这些人是这一时期英国最大的广告消费者之一.他们的回报是在城市阶层中创造了对日益成熟和剪裁成熟的服装的巨大需求,这使得商业帝国得以创造和命运被制造。成千上万的裁缝和尾巴或essyes在伦敦的现成工业中受雇。例如,Nichollrsquo;s在1850年雇用了1200名外包工,E.Moses和Hyams的经营规模相似.正如已经指出的那样,允许需求在如此规模上增长的关键创新,不是技术,而是标准尺寸。最早的实用缝纫机是在1850年代开发的,但第一个在商业基础上成功应用的缝纫机直到19世纪60年代才开发出来,远远晚于大型现成工业的发展。正如戈德利解释的那样,触发是标准尺寸的发展。这可能是在伦敦首次引入的。其他地方也发生类似的事态发展。例如,在巴黎,第一家成衣服装零售商是Pierre Parissot。 1824年,他开了一家商店并在圣殿附近开了一家商店。最初他出售宽松剪裁的预装服装,但开始分化成西服。 1830年左右,他开始扩张,购买毗邻的建筑物,到1856年,他创建了一座类似于摩尔人阿尔德盖特的商场.17巴黎服装业可能比伦敦更大,雇用的人数约为10万到8万。但伦敦的现成部门几乎肯定会更大。到1847年,巴黎有233家成衣制造商和7000多名工人。是在1851年,伦敦有7,000尾或几乎所有的人都在现成的部门工作,还有成千上万的裁缝和女裁缝等等。

如果成衣制造业的发展更多的是标准尺寸而不是技术,那么出汗就不能说同样的道理。服装行业持续出汗,或因低工资,强制性和无偿加班以及恶劣条件剥削劳动力,令许多评论人士感到困惑;但它不需要。关于服装工业历史的第二个神话是,“小主人的繁殖是出汗的根源”.20这些小主人中的许多人是犹太人,学者和调查人员自满的结论往往是犹太人企业家造成的这是因为犹太人的气质[它]渴望独立.21这简直是不正确的。出汗的原因主要是成衣生产的性质,特别是劳动力含量高。每当竞争压低服装价格时,劳工成本一直是第一个承受压力的。在十九世纪四十年代第一次爆发愤怒之前,服装行业的工资一直在下降。 22值得思考的是,为什么在服装行业中应该如此。原因是技术,或者说是缺少技术。布料是柔软且剪裁成形的形状复杂,并且一直存在并且仍然没有能够通过缝纫机,特别是较轻的织物,在操纵布料中复制人手的灵活性的机器。因此,服装行业的资本投资一直局限于缝纫机,而不是更多。增加资本投资的好处,就劳动生产率的提高和工资的提高而言,也同样受到限制。正如戈德利所表明的,在他对服装行业中美国和英国劳动生产率的比较中,美国工业劳动生产率的提高通常是由于技术更有效地使用而不是更多的投资。

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